Subject: ABI/Inform andragogy Date: Thu, 2 Mar 2000 17:53:52 -0600 From: ovid@tioga.lso.missouri.edu To: rpvstl@logan.edu *************************** Database: ABI/Inform <1985 - present> Search Strategy (Your Citations from Set 2): ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 andragogy.mp. [mp=title, abstract, heading word, company 7 name] 2 from 1 keep 1-7 7 *************************** <1> Accession Number 01603089 Author Lee, Chris. Title The adult learner: Neglected no more. Source Training. 35(3): 47-52. 1998 Mar. Subject Headings Adult education Training Books Personal profiles Learning Classification Codes United States [9190]. Biographical treatment [9160]. Training & development [6200]. Geographic Location US. Abstract Malcolm Knowles, considered the father of adult education, introduced practitioners to the theory of andragogy, the art and science of helping adults learn. An enduring part of his professional life and work was his belief that adults need to be active participants in their own learning. Many current ideas about workplace learning owe much to foundations laid by Knowles. He first presented his andragogical model in The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy Versus Pedagogy (1970). It rested on 4 basic assumptions about learners that distinguished them from children: 1. self-concept, 2. experience, 3. readiness to learn, and 4. orientation to learning. Knowles will be remembered for helping trainers and educators understand that adults learn differently from children and that trainers should use a different process to facilitate that learning. Full Text Headnote: Many current ideas about workplace learning build on foundations laid by Malcolm Knowles. His theory of andragogy describes the art and science of helping adults learn. Malcolm S. Knowles died last Nov. 27 at the age of Sq. When the news filtered through training and adult education circles, an outpouring of tributes laced with fond reminiscences wasn't far behind. Knowles, considered the father of adult education, introduced practitioners to the theory of andragogy, the art and science of helping adults learn. But to anyone who had ever met him or learned from him-which amounted to quite a few people over his 6o-year career-he was known simply as "Malcolm," and he evoked heartfelt responses in death, just as he had in life. Both TRAINING Magazine (www.trainingsupersite.com) and the American Society for Training and Development (www.astd.org) opened pages on their Web sites where people could read and write tributes to the man and his work. His friends and acquaintances remembered his warmth, his humility, his influence on their careers, his ever-present bolo tie and turquoise clasp. While Knowles might have been abashed at the heaped-up praise, he certainly would have approved of the participative nature of the electronic tributes that encouraged readers to post their own remembrances rather than simply reading someone else's. An enduring quality of his professional life and work (they were inseparable; he excelled at practicing what he preached) was his belief that adults need to be active participants in their own learning. Many current ideas about workplace learning-the assumption that employees are fully capable of being self-directed learners, the attempt to build "learning organizations," the desirability of nurturing "communities of practice" that allow for informal learning-owe much to foundations laid by Knowles. Anyone who delivers training and performance support through electronic media now assumes that employees want to learn, master necessary tasks, learn from each other, and control their own learning-all principles Knowles articulated and spent a lifetime proselytizing. While electronically delivered instruction still often falls short of those ideals, the instructional philosophy at its core is pure Knowles. Training veterans not only remember Knowles as the father of adult learning, but also as the author of 19 books, most notably 1973's The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species (now in its 4th edition, Gulf Publishing), and hundreds of articles. Many trainers experienced his teaching techniques personally: For decades, his sessions at professional conferences-always sessions, never keynote speeches-were standing-room-only. His impact on the field has been magnified by many students who studied under him during his years as a professor of education at Boston University, from 1960 to 1974, and professor of adult and community education at North Carolina State University in Raleigh, from 1974 until 1979. When a colleague asked Knowles about his legacy, he replied that the biggest contribution he made was in preparing about 200 adult educators from around the country. "I'm glad his priorities were what they were, because I'm one of them," says John Henschke, a professor of adult education at the University of Missouri at St. Louis. Henschke, who was one of Knowles' doctoral students at Boston University in the early '70s, considers him a professional father. "He lived up to his middle name, Shepherd." 'Whatagogy?' But for many, Knowles' name is most immediately associated with andragogy, a term he used to describe the characteristics of adult learners and a set of assumptions for most effectively teaching adults. He didn't coin the term, but he popularized it at a time when adult educators were in search of a theory to call their own. In The Making of an Adult Educator: An Autobiographical Journey (Jossey-Bass, 1989), he describes its beginnings: "By the mid-1960s a rough outline of a theoretical framework of adult learning had evolved in my mind, and in 1967 I had an experience that made it all come together. A Yugoslavian adult educator, Dusan Savicevic, participated in a summer session I was conducting at Boston University. At the end of it he came up to me with his eyes sparkling and said, 'Malcolm, you are preaching and practicing andragogy.' I replied, 'Whatagogy?' because I had never heard the term before." But Knowles soon was on intimate terms with it. He discovered that "andragogy" had been coined by a German teacher in 1833, was reintroduced by a German social scientist in the 1920s, and then was more or less forgotten until 1957, when it was picked up by adult educators in Europe. Knowles enthusiastically imported it: "It made great sense to me to have a term that would enable us to discuss the growing body of knowledge about adult learners in parallel with the pedagogical model of childhood learning," he wrote in his autobiography. He first presented his andragogical model in The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy Versus Pedagogy (1970). It rested on four basic assumptions about adult learners that distinguish them from children: 1. Self-concept. In contrast to the dependency of children, adults have a deep psychological need to be self-directing. They resent and resist situations that do not allow for self-directioncourses in which the trainer and the design shove trainees into the dependent role of children, for example. 2. Experience. Adults have accumulated a reservoir of experience that serves as a resource for learning, as well as a broad base to which to relate new learning. 3. Readiness to learn. Adults become ready to learn things that they need to know or to be able to do in order to fulfill their role in society-that of worker, spouse, parent, etc. In other words, don't try to teach them the principles of good composition; teach them to write an effective business letter. 4. Orientation to learning. Children have a subject-centered orientation to learning; adults tend to have a problemcentered orientation. That is, children master content to pass a course or be promoted to the next grade; adults seek the skills or knowledge they need to apply to real-life problems they face. In Andragogy in Action: Applying Modern Principles of Adult Learning (1984), Knowles added a fifth assumption: Adults are more motivated to learn by internal factors, such as increased self-esteem, than they are by external rewards like pay raises and promotions. When The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy Versus Pedagogy was first published, Knowles saw the two as antithetical models-hence the "versus" in the subtitle. He soon began to rethink that stance, especially after schoolteachers wrote him that children sometimes learned better using the andragogical model-and adult educators reported that pedagogical assumptions were more appropriate for adults in certain learning situations. Persuaded that the most effective instruction depends on the situation, the learners, and the learning task at hand, he changed the subtitle to From Pedagogy to Andragogy in the revised edition of the book published in 1980. Knowles' theory of andragogy stirred much debate and continuing controversy among adult educators (see "Uh-Oh...Second Thoughts About Adult Learning Theory," TRAINING, December 1988). And, ever evolving his own ideas and learning from others, he continued to modify his andragogical assumptions. "Kids have just as much need for learning to be life-centered, task-centered and problem-centered. It's just that the nature of their tasks, problems and lives is different," Knowles told TRAINING then. "The only universal characteristic of adult learners is the quality and quantity of their experience.... [A]s adults, our main resources for learning are life experiences, not teachers." More than a theory But andragogy is more than a learning theory. Its assumptions underlie a style of instruction that many trainers today assume is simply good practice. In Andragogy in Action, Knowles laid out the basic principles. Begin by setting the climate, i.e., create a physical and psychological environment that is conducive to learning. Then involve the learners-in planning the course design and the learning activities, in diagnosing their learning needs (his model of competencies reflects both the individual's and organization's needs and allows people to see the gap between the skills they possess and those they need), in formulating their learning objectives, in designing their learning plans, and in evaluating their learning. (Photograph Omitted) Captioned as: Malcolm Knowles' classic works, standard texts in adult education curricula, belong on every trainer's bookshelf. Knowles consistently used andragogical principles in his own classrooms and with his students, says Rosemary Caffarella, a longtime colleague of Knowles and professor of educational leadership at the University of North Colorado in Greeley. "His beliefs about adult learning played out in his practice-and congruence between theory and practice is not the most usual thing in a scholar." That congruence extended beyond his practice. Ask anyone who knew him what he was like, and the word "authenticity" is bound to come up. Chip Bell, a Dallas consultant and longtime friend, coordinated a tribute to Knowles in 1989. The article, titled simply "Malcolm" (Training and Development Journal, October 1989), included tributes from his wide circle of friends. As Bell noted then: "Malcolm is the epitome of authenticity. His realness is part of his educational values-not a hat he wears or a role he plays, but part of who he is." Today Bell says, "I was never formally a student of his, but anyone who worked closely with him was his student." Perhaps that's because Knowles' focus never wavered: It was always on the learner, not the lesson plan, not the trainer. "If Malcolm Knowles were naming your magazine, he'd call it Learning, not TRAINING," says Geoff Bellman, a consultant and author in Seattle. "Knowles' work intuitively makes so much sense," Bellman says. "He talked about and wrote about learning the way people really learn. It lacks the scientific rigidity that other people's work has, but when you look inside yourself, it fits with the way you've learned. When he wrote about it, he just made it more evident." Knowles was a model of "egolessness," Bellman says. He preferred the role of facilitator (or "pointer-outer," as he called it-an apropos, if possibly ego-deflating description) to that of trainer. "That's difficult for a trainer, to pay attention to someone else and lift them up. You don't get as much attention yourself," Bellman says. "But that's the point: You're in service to the learner; the learner is in control. From an ego point of view, that's not nearly as exciting." The legacy Knowles will be remembered for helping trainers and educators understand that adults learn differently from children and that trainers should use a different process to facilitate that learning. His classic works-The Adult Learner, The Modern Practice of Adult Education, Andragogy in Action, and Self-Directed Learning-belong on every trainer's bookshelf. The principles of andragogy he championed have become so established they are almost transparent. "He helped us see the whole process in a different way-the focus on discovery learning, rather than just didactic information dissemination," says Bell. "We take it for granted; we think we've always seen this way. But his influence is what made us see the world differently." Knowles did a great service to the field-and to adult learners, says Sharan Merriam, a professor of adult education at the University of Georgia in Athens. "If an instructor goes into a learning situation with adults and has some notion of what Knowles is talking about, the encounter is going to be more beneficial to the learners and to the instructor," she says. "That's where his real contribution lies." The phrase "paradigm shift" has been so overworked in recent years, it's become all but meaningless. But in this case it fits: Knowles brought one to the field of adult education, contends Leonard Nadler, the retired founder of the H RD program at George Washington University who edited four of Knowles' books. "There's a uniqueness and a difference in the way adults learn. And unless you understand it, you'll treat them as big children." Footnote: Editor's note: This is part of our occasional series that spotlights a classic work in the human resources development field. Each is, in our view, a seminal book or body of work that contributed to the foundations of accepted practice in the profession. Each delivered breakthrough insights in its time. And each offers instruction in the basics-as well as historical perspective-to today's practitioners. Author Affiliation: CHRIS LEE is managing editor of TRAINING. clee@trainingmag.com (Copyright Lakewood Publications 1998) ISSN 0095-5892 Document Delivery Fulltext online. Photocopy. Photocopy available from ABI/Inform. UMI Article Clearinghouse Number: 5169.01. Entry Week 9814 <2> Accession Number 01585872 Author Anonymous. Title Malcolm Shepherd Knowles: 1913-1997. Source Training & Development. 52(2): 11. 1998 Feb. Subject Headings Educators Adult education Personal profiles Deaths Classification Codes United States [9190]. Schools & educational services [8306]. Biographical treatment [9160]. Geographic Location US. Abstract Widely regarded as the father of adult education, Malcolm Knowles (1913-1997) epitomized the concept of learning. Most notably, Knowles' concept of andragogy - that adults were a different breed of learners - sparked a new field of research and literature. Before such terms as "vision" and "values" became commonplace in organizations, Knowles espoused empathy, experiential expression, participation, and authenticity. Full Text Long before there were ever such terms as the learning organization, there was Malcolm Knowles. Widely regarded as the father of adult education, Knowles epitomized the concept of learning. He devoted his life to it-from his own education at Harvard University, class of '34, to entering the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy to professorships at Boston University, North Carolina State University, and University of Arkansas. Along the way, he served as director of related training for the National Youth Administration of Massachusetts and director of adult education for the Boston YMCA. He created the first comprehensive adult education program at the Central YMCA in Chicago, where he worked from 1946 to 1951. He was the founding executive secretary of the Adult Education Association of the United States, which he led until 1959. In 1982, it merged with a related group to form the American Association for Adult and Continuing Education, based in Washington, D.C. During World War II, he served in the U.S. Navy, emerging as a Lieutenant Junior-Grade. He and his wife Hulda had two children, Eric and Barbara. Knowles retired in 1970 and was elected to the HRD Hall of Fame in 1985. In 1991, he moved to Fayetteville, Arkansas, where he died of a stroke on November 27, 1997. Most notably, Knowles's concept of andragogythat adults were a different breed of learnerssparked a new field of research and literature. Knowles himself published 18 books and more than 200 articles in his lifetime. His works include The Modern Theory of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy; The Adult Learner, A Neglected Species (now in its third edition, Gulf Publishing), A History of the Adult Education Movement in the United States, and The Making of an Adult Educator An Autobiographical Journey. Knowles's seemingly simple idea that adults learn differently from children or twentysomething college students arguably led to increased interest in the pursuit of lifelong learningwhether to enhance one's professional skills or to just know more about the world. Over the years, Knowles continued to refine his thoughts about andragogy, coming to believe that both adults and children are naturally self-directed learners and that the unique characteristics of adult learners develop as they mature. Before such terms as vision and values became commonplace in organizations, Knowles espoused empathy, experiential expression, participation, and authenticity-which he defined as "behaving out of your real personhood rather than out of some role." Eschewing advice to "stop being so warm and friendly" when he left one post to become associate professor of education at Boston University in 1960, Malcolm (he preferred that students call him by his first name rather than Dr. or Professor) tried to be more "professorial" but ended up feeling miserable. So, he went back to being himself, and he vowed to be a "fellow learner" rather than play the role of trainer or instructor. By those who knew him personally, he's remembered as an unpretentious guy who favored bolo ties and as a hugger, in the best sense of the word. By many who knew him only through his ideas, he's remembered as a philosopher and an educator who sometimes marched to a different drummer. But none dispute his sincerity, dedication, and authenticity nor his many contributions. Says his good friend and colleague Chip Bell, "Malcolm was as known for who he was as for what he did. He altered our paradigm of adult learning in the same way that Einstein did for physics. We will miss his authenticity, his brilliance, and his humor. As a result of Malcolm's enormous, lifelong contribution, the world of adult learning will never be the same." With respect, appreciation, and fond farewell, The members and staff of ASTD You can post your own tribute to Malcolm Knowles at ASTs Website, www.astd.org. (Copyright American Society for Training & Development 1998) ISSN 1055-9760 Document Delivery Fulltext online. Photocopy. Photocopy available from ABI/Inform. UMI Article Clearinghouse Number: 5996.03. Entry Week 9810 <3> Accession Number 01015754 Author Goodboe, Michael E. Title Should security practice andragogy? Source Security Management. 39(4): 65-67. 1995 Apr. Subject Headings Security services Training Methods Adults Company Name Wackenhut Training Institute. Classification Codes Other services [8300]. Training & development [6200]. United States [9190]. Geographic Location US. Abstract Security professionals have typically used traditional schooling methods that were developed for young learners. The Wackenhut Training Institute had taken a different approach, turning to an emerging adult learning model known as andragogy. Andragogy is based on 4 fundamental tenets of adult education: 1. Adults prefer to be self-directed, rather than instructor-directed. 2. Adults have unique life experiences that they bring with them to the learning situation. 3. Adult readiness to learn is linked to what adults consider relevant. 4. Adults want an immediate application of knowledge. Full Text IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECURITY officer training programs, the focus has typically been on selecting course topics. While content is essential, the methods used to convey information are equally critical to a program's success. Yet security professionals have typically used traditional schooling methods that were developed for young learners. The Wackenhut Training Institute in Coral Gables, Florida, has taken a different approach, turning to an emerging adult learning model. "Andragogy." Youth learning, called pedagogy, is the model that characterizes elementary and secondary education in the United States. The pedagogy model relies on teacher-directed learning in a traditional classroom format. For years, pedagogy was assumed to be the only realistic model of education. Not surprisingly. it found a niche in security industry training centers. The emerging adult learning model is known as andragogy, a term coined by Malcome Knowles, a widely recognized expert in adult education. Andragogy is based on four fundamental tenets of adult education: * Adults prefer to be self-directed, rather than instructor-directed. * Adults have unique life experiences that they bring with them to the learning situation. * Adult readiness to learn is linked to what adults consider relevant. * Adults want an immediate application of knowledge rather than the postponed application indicative of youth learning. Use of the andragogy model can lead to better retention and application of the knowledge and skills taught in security training programs. However, this new model is more difficult for both student and teacher to execute. Andragogy challenges instructors to think of themselves as facilitators--not teachers--of adult learning. Similarly, the adult learners must stop thinking of themselves as students in the traditional, pedagogical sense. The adult learner must begin to take responsibility for his or her education. Survey. To better ascertain the adult learning styles of its security employees, Wackenhut Training Institute gave 590 field employees a multiple choice test to determine their preferred method of information processing. The information Wackenhut gathered from the test echoed earlier studies of law enforcement officers and industrial security managers in confirming that people drawn to law enforcement and security tend to be traditional and conservative. This finding would suggest a tendency to hold on to old ways of teaching and learning. On the other hand, those surveyed also expressed a strong desire to understand cause and effect relationships. This indicates that as adult learners they need to understand why they are learning. Application of knowledge is likewise important to them. The pedagogy model seldom emphasizes the "why" behind learning, and the application of skills and knowledge is postponed by necessity. This approach has been found to be unacceptable to adult learners. The results also showed that hands-on experience during the learning process is important to adult students and that the traditional "I'll talk, you listen" lecture method--though still applicable in some contexts--is not always the best way to train security officers. Five other items unique to Wackenhut's worker population were strongly demonstrated: Security employees have a concern for competent instruction; they prefer logical sequencing of subject matter; they are detail oriented; they like to participate in the learning experience; and they have a high need to "feel" the impact of the training, not just to perceive it. Changes. Wackenhut's previous adult learner methodology was traditional pedagogy. Training was done in the lecture style, with the exception of on-the-job training. The new concepts of the adult learning model coupled with the information derived from the field tests provided Wackenhut with a chance to make fundamental changes in its security training program. To that end, Wackenhut launched programs to revise instruction guides and self-study workbooks to present materials in a point-by-point fashion with each item building logically on the last. The number of handouts has also been increased, with specific information that tells the student up front what his or her responsibilities are relative to the learning experience Each lesson plan now includes overviews of adult learning concepts to be read by the facilitator prior to instruction. Interactive exercises such as relevant role playing have been made an integral and required part of each presentation, and self-quizzes now enable the trainee to assess his or her progress. Wackenhut has redesigned its "train-the-trainer" program to focus less on traditional delivery and more on assessing learning styles, evaluating student needs, and identifying instruction styles. Trainers are taught interaction techniques. The company has also developed a new program to teach adult student how to learn by coming to terms with their own learning preferences, capabilities, and responsibilities. Finally, Wackenhut has implemented "learning contracts" that require the trainee to specify in an action plan how he or she will apply the learned con. cepts during daily work. Application. Wackenhut's first general experiment with adult learning concepts occurred over a seven-month period in 1994, involving about thirty Wackenhut security supervisors at the Salem and Hope Creek Stations of the Public Service Electric & Gas Company in New Jersey. Each student had to complete the Wackenhut Leadership Manual, a twenty-five-chapter self-study survey course in basic management skills. A comprehensive, proctored exam followed. Students were likewise encouraged to complete the Professional Development Program, a self-study survey course in industrial security. With both of these courses, students earn continuing education credits from the University of Maryland's University College. The self-directed exercises were intended to provide a common framework for more advanced on-site training to follow. The next phase was a one-day, on-site program conducted by Wackenhut Training Institute. Just prior to the on-site training, each person was asked to complete the same multiple choice questionnaire given to the sample group of field employees. This was done for two reasons. First, these individuals had not been part of the first test group. Second, the overall training program was designed to be compatible with their presumed learning styles; it was, therefore, necessary for Wackenhut to validate its research. As expected, this group of adult learners was similar to the general population earlier surveyed. The on-site training program began with more diagnostic tests to authenticate learning styles, this time to enable the participants to identify what would be easier for them in the program and what would be more difficult, given their preferred ways of processing information. A short explanation of adult learning theory prefaced the main part of the program. Next, an interactive program based on a teamwork training module took place. This segment helped students understand how their individual contributions aided the overall team's success. For instance, some students found that they possessed good "people" skills, while others found that they had strong analytical abilities. Although, in the past, these skills might have been viewed as conflicting, the participants learned that in the proper applications they each could contribute significantly. In a hypothetical situation concerning scheduling, the analytical person would contribute to the building of the new schedule by working out the hours, while the interpersonal individual would contribute by providing insight on how the new schedule might affect carpooling, work relationships, and family life. Numerous exercises reemphasize the points raised in the leadership manual, taking into account the learning preferences of the trainees. All exercises were presented in the context of security operations at the work site, an essential component of the adult training model. Care was taken to ensure that everyone participated in the exercises and discussions--even the introverts. Research had shown that some learners did not favor interactive exercises. These natural nonparticipators had to be drawn out. A key factor in the application of training is the cost-benefit analysis. Benefit is measured in terms of applicability of learning. Adult learning theory suggests that the learner should be challenged to demonstrate the cost-benefit ratio by specifying how he or she will apply the newly learned material. Thus, time was allotted at the end of the day for the participants to detail the information in their written personal action plans. Integral to this new training approach was the redesign of student critique sheets to focus on the four key elements of adult learning. Learners were asked: * To what extent did you feel like a participant in today' s learning program? * Did your experiences validate the material? * Was today's material relevant to your current needs? * Do you feel you will be able to apply the concepts that you learned today to your security role? Participants answered these questions using a scale that rated their response. Almost all responses were "to a great extent." No one responded "to a little extent" to any question. Most telling were the comments written on the back of the sheets: "I hope to see more of this type of thing in the future." "Very interesting concepts. If I can apply what I've learned when dealing with my troops, I will become a much better supervisor." "We need more of this type of training." Feedback continues to be excellent. Reinforcement of training is every bit as important as the initial training itself. Realizing this, the site's training staff prepared a follow-up program to be held a month after the on-site program. The program consists of interactive learning exercises in which the learning preferences model is used to assess and respond to issues of conflict, motivation, and understanding others. Second, students are given the chance to complete the Wackenhut professional development programs for security officers and security supervisors. These are voluntary, progressive programs of security instruction such as--in the security officer program--proper patrol procedures and report writing. Completion of these programs also earns continuing education credits from the University of Maryland. There may be a temptation to view concern with training methodology as unwarranted in an industry characterized by high turnover and a fairly transient work force. But security professionals should recognize that quality service is impossible without effective training. The private security industry is projected to have more employees at the turn of the next century than public law enforcement. The better the training of the security work force, the better service they will provide, and the more respect the industry will gain. Michael E. Goodboe is the vice president, training, for the Wackenhut Training Institute, a division of the Wackenhut Corporation, Coral Gables, Fl. He serves on the Florida Private Investigations, Recovery, and Security Advisory Council and on the Training and Education Committee of the National Association of Security and Investigative Regulators, Inc. (Copyright American Society for Industrial Security 1995) ISSN 0145-9406 Document Delivery Fulltext online. Photocopy. Photocopy available from ABI/Inform. UMI Article Clearinghouse Number: 11161.00. Entry Week 9519 <4> Accession Number 00717288 Author Reed, John. Title Learner-centered learning. Source Training & Development. 47(6): 20-22. 1993 Jun. Subject Headings Adult education Learning Employee development Trainers Models Classification Codes United States [9190]. Training & development [6200]. Geographic Location US. Abstract Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults learn. Adult-learning principles have a place in many workplace training situations. Adults need to see how a learning experience will help them acquire the skills, knowledge, and attitudes to handle situations. Adults learn best when they are not threatened and when they are treated as responsible individuals. Adults should be actively involved in planning and directing their learning activities. The most effective activities for adults are characterized by hands-on learning through doing and discovery. Trainers should concentrate not only on the facts they are trying to get across but also the concepts that underlie them. Full Text Adults learn differently from children. That may sound obvious, but it was news to a lot of U.S. businesspeople in the 1970s, when Malcolm Knowles first introduced into the United States the concept of andragogy--the art and science of helping adults learn. The concept, which was already accepted in Europe, distinguished between andragogy and pedagogy--the kind of teacher-centered learning that is usually associated with educating children. Occasionally, a more controlled, teacher-directed approach may be necessary for teaching adults; for example, it might be useful in an area in which the learners have little or no experience. But adult-learning principles have a place in most workplace training situations. Several assumptions underpin the adult-learning model. First, the model assumes that learning is a basic human need. Adults tend to be highly motivated to learn--when they need to resolve immediate, short-term conflicts or problems. They must be able to see how a learning experience will help them acquire the skills, knowledge, and attitudes to work through their situations. Adults are more internally than externally motivated. Motivation includes such factors as self-esteem, self-perception, confidence, recognition, and quality of life. Adults learn best when they are not threatened and when they are treated as responsible individuals. Learning should take place in a pleasant environment that encourages change. An adult who is dissatisfied with the learning process is unlikely to continue taking part in it. Because adults consider themselves to be independent and self-directing, they should be actively involved in planning and directing their learning activities. They need to be part of a learning experience that allows them to control and enjoy a changing environment. Experience and reflection play an important role in the learning process. Facilitators need to recognize the considerable and unique experiences and expertise that adults bring to a learning situation--and to organize learning activities that take advantage of that experience. The most effective activities are characterized by hands-on learning through doing and discovery. This kind of learning consists of a series of planned, structured activities that emphasize analyzing and decision making. The activities involve practice and practical application; they relate to the learners' work environment and immediate needs. Effective choices might include group discussions, simulations, labs, field experiences, and problem-solving exercises. Adult learning is process-oriented. The instructor assumes the role of process manager, encouraging learners to take active roles in acquiring knowledge and skills. The instructor helps adults along the learning path, drawing on the group's experiences whenever possible. He or she is a learning facilitator first and a content resource only secondarily. As a content resource, the instructor must have subject matter expertise and the ability to relate to learners. Facilitators should concentrate not only on the facts they are trying to get across, but also on the concepts that underlie them. Learners tend to remember concepts longer than the remember facts. And they remember best when they participate in the learning and when they practice applying it. Regular feedback and follow-up are also necessary. Remember that adults learn at different speeds due to educational backgrounds; intelligence; attention spans; abilities; and differences in vision, hearing, and general health. But the ability to learn does not diminish significantly with age. Adults also bring with them their own learning styles. Training designers should consider all of those differences when designing learning experiences. (Copyright American Society for Training & Development 1993) ISSN 1055-9760 Document Delivery Fulltext online. Photocopy. Photocopy available from ABI/Inform. UMI Article Clearinghouse Number: 5996.03. Entry Week 9509 <5> Accession Number 00472085 Author Bell, Chip R. Title Malcolm. Source Training & Development Journal. 43(10): 38-43. 1989 Oct. Subject Headings Personal Problems Educators Adult education Training Classification Codes Training & development [6200]. Biographical treatment [9160]. Abstract Malcolm Knowles, considered by many to be the "father of adult learning," put the word "andragogy," the art of helping adults learn, into the training vernacular. His influence on the field comes through his prolific and provocative writings, as well as through those who have studied under him, mainly at Boston University and North Carolina State. Two major themes run through Knowles' work - control and discovery. Knowles believes that there will be no learner resistance if participants are learning what they believe they need. Participative approaches that offer invitations rather than outlined rules are much more in line with the idea of the adult as a responsible, independent, and interdependent learner. Training that focuses on shared control, relevance, and authenticity will yield participants who not only gain the information they need to be effective and successful, but who gain the judgment-making competence and confidence that enable them to be self-reliant. ISSN 0041-0861 Document Delivery Photocopy. Photocopy available from ABI/Inform. UMI Article Clearinghouse Number: 5996.00. Entry Week 9509 <6> Accession Number 00433467 Author Feuer, Dale. Geber, Beverly. Title Uh-Oh . . . Second Thoughts About Adult Learning Theory. Source Training. 25(12): 31-39. 1988 Dec. Subject Headings Adults Learning Employee development Theory Teaching Experience Training Classification Codes Training & development [6200]. Experimental, theoretical treatment [9130]. Abstract Malcolm Knowles' theory of andragogy has sparked a revolution in adult education and training. Introduced in 1973, in The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species, Knowles' theory hypothesized that the adult learner can be distinguished from the child learner in 4 ways. Knowles also claimed that these differences had clear implications for teaching practices. Specifically, adults need more flexible, participative, experience-based, problem-centered training. At the heart of the andragogy model is the assumption that adults are self-directed learners by nature, a notion that Columbia University's Stephen Brookfield and other critics question. Knowles readily admits that he has refined his andragogical assumptions over the years, saying that what he once perceived as unique characteristics of adult learners are tendencies that emerge as humans mature. He believes that adults and children are similar in terms of self-directedness as well as in motivation, orientation, and readiness to learn. He now thinks that adults' sole distinction as learners is the quality and quantity of their experience. ISSN 0095-5892 Document Delivery Photocopy. Photocopy available from ABI/Inform. UMI Article Clearinghouse Number: 5169.00. Entry Week 9509 <7> Accession Number 00346287 Author Crapo, Raymond F. Title It's Time to Stop Training ... And Start Facilitating. Source Public Personnel Management. 15(4): 443-449. 1986 Winter. [Diagrams, References] Subject Headings Government employees Training Employee development Models Learning Adults Adult education Trainers Classification Codes Training & development [6200]. Public sector organizations [9550]. Abstract In order for the ''best and brightest'' in an organization to become involved in development programs, trainers must abandon classical training procedures and introduce group facilitation. Successful group facilitators practice what currently is known as ''andragogy,'' or adult learning techniques and processes. They expect their audiences to possess knowledge and treat them with that expectation from the beginning. Facilitators also use the JoHari Window as a model to determine the degree of knowledge the audience possesses about the particular topic being considered. The window divides knowledge into 4 quadrants: 1. current knowledge, 2. recall from memory, 3. new things to learn, and 4. ''blind spot.'' Adults have a lot of ''baggage'' that they bring to training programs, making it essential for the trainer to know which pane of the JoHari Window best represents the knowledge of the subject being explored. ISSN 0109-1026 Document Delivery Photocopy. Photocopy available from ABI/Inform. UMI Article Clearinghouse Number: 9114.00. Entry Week 9509