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Week 15: Anthropology 11--Introduction to Cultural AnthropologyLecture Notes for Chapter 13:Culture and the Supernatural (360-387) |
Email: wolfordj@msx.umsl.edu
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Links to Section Headings inside this page:
The Anthropological Approach to Religion | The Practice of Religion | Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft | The Functions of Religion | Religion and Culture Change |
The important questions Haviland
cites for you to consider while reading this chapter:
What is religion?What are religionís identifying features?
What functions does religion serve?
Notes for William A. Haviland,Cultural Anthropology, 10th edition: |
Chapter 13: Culture and the Supernatural (360-387) |
all religions satisfy social
and psychological needs
gives sense of continuity, connecting both to the past and to the future, by providing a sense of continuing into an afterlife
gives meaning to the mundane routines of everyday existence, by giving them spiritual connections
social functions
provides moral sanctions for individual
conduct
provides social validation of all behavior and values
Science vs. Religion
an opposite tendency seems to have occurred
rise of interest in spirituality: occultism, New Age, witchcraft, Eastern religions in North America
tensions arising from scientific/technological
advances have given rise to the need for greater beliefs in religion
pollution
destruction of agricultural/pastoral/forested/desert/water areas
The Anthropological Approach to Religion (364) |
religion a set of rituals, rationalized by myth, that mobilizes supernatural powers to achieve or prevent transformations of state in people and nature
the manipulation is effected by the use of ritual?"religion in action"
religion, and ritual, serve to reduce anxiety, which allows people to cope with uncontrollable phenomena, which gives religion its survival value
Haviland's definition: "the beliefs and patterns
of behavior by which people try to control the area of the universe that
is otherwise beyond their control." (364)
Haviland suggests that the more a group feels
it has control over its environment, the universe, whatever, the less religion
will play a part in their lives
What do you think of this opinion?
The Practice of Religion (364-376) |
in terms of religion, the sensations felt take on a supernatural aura
the personal involvement provides a sense of security, reassurance, enthusiasm, ecstasy
SUPERNATURAL BEINGS AND POWERS (365-370)
therefore, humans try to manipulate such beings/forces through prayer, ritual and sacrifice
REMEMBER: myths are
religiously held, fervently believed tales of a sacred past
(timeless in the sense that it is not linearly connected to the present)
that rationalize (that is, explain and justify) a societys religious belief
system and practices
three categories of such supernatural
beings/forces:
ancestral spirits
other spirits, such as nonhuman
spirit beings/forces
Gods and Goddesses (365-367) |
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page 366 polytheism belief in several gods and/or goddesses (as contrasted with monotheismóbelief in one god or goddess)
page 366 pantheon the several gods and goddesses of a people often pantheons are composed of the greater gods of a conquering people with the gods of a conquered people subsumed within it but relegated to a lesser position within the pantheon sometimes the supreme god(s) within the pantheon are all but ignored by the people, with the assumption that such a supreme being would pay little or no attention to creatures as lowly as humans
the Aztecs (Mexico) had such a pantheon
the relative dominance of gods or goddesses within a pantheon or a system directly correlates to whether the economy of the people is controlled by either the men or the women
pastoral, intensive agricultural, and state societies tend to have god-dominated pantheons horticultural and minimal agricultural societies where women make a major contribution to the economy (thus assuring their relative equality within the society) and where the men play a large role in the domestic and childcare arenas, tend to have female-dominated pantheons
the ancient, nomadic, pastoral Hebrews of the Bible are an example
originally incorporating a strong god-centered religion, they entered Canaan, which was an agricultural society with a strong goddess culture (supplicating to the goddess for greater fertility of the soil), which they adapted to; but then they went back to the masculine religion when confronted by war with the Philistines
societies that incorporate gods and/or goddesses within their religious system typically will have an established structure of priests and/or priestesses that serve as the ritual practitioners
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Ancestral Spirits (367)
I'd say that virtually all societies have some sort of ancestor cult involved, even in state societies like the USA the idea of ancestors remaining around after death derives from the very subjective feeling that one has about ones own self: surely something of me will survive my living and breathing existence
among the Penobscot we saw this in Chapter 5 (Growing up human, pp. 124-125) in the discussion of their conception of the vital self wandering around during the dream state surely if we as self-aware beings can survive death, then it would only stand to reason that all who preceded us would survive as well
and if they survive as spirits, then we would have some sort of social relationship with them, a relationship that would have to resemble to some degree the relationship we had during life
further, it would make sense that these relatives would probably retain to a large extent the personalities they had during life (for better or worse)
some societies have a very strong ancestor-oriented belief system, affecting the social system and ritual practices
in Africa, most of Asia, northern Europe among pastoral groups, ancestors are treated as invisible but present entities for whom places may be set at the table, shrines are kept in the household, and shares are set aside in resource distribution especially strong in societies where descent is the basis for social identity
where it is strong and central to the societys belief system, the conception of ancestors is that they do retain their personalities, that they can be either malevolent or benevolent, that they actually have sensorial feelings like living humans, that they can affect the physical as well as spiritual lives of their living descendants, that they therefore must be appeased and made comfortable
functions as a mechanism to maintain social conformity and cultural validation over time and to maintain a thread of temporal continuity for the family and the society, connecting past, present and future
my contention above that ancestor worship is present to some degree in all societies can be supported by looking at places where you might think it would not play a large role
e.g., USA: why do we devote such large space to cemeteries? why do we have a Memorial Day? what is the psychological root for heirlooms, for mementos, for family histories, for genealogy? why do the Mormons place such a strong emphasis on maintaining genealogical records? why are historic homes historic? why do we talk of the Revolutionary era ideologues as our "Founding Fathers"? etc.
Animism (368)
any natural object is a candidate for animistic belief
the force is centered in a physical, natural object the force can be transferred through a part of the natural object, may even be amplified by the integration of cultural forces with the object (such as by making a ritual costume out of specific feathers, wood, hide, etc.)
page 368 animism a belief in spirit beings thought to animate nature typical of societies that have a close relationship to nature, that depend on nature for sustenance, that see themselves in a reciprocal relationship with nature spirits are less remote than deities
spirits are seen as the forces that both provide help and cause distress
shamans are the conventional agents through whom the supernatural forces are appealed to and manipulated
Important Scholars: [on p. 368]
SIR EDWARD B. TYLOR (1832-1917)
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Animatism (368-370) |
page 369 animatism a belief that the world is animated by impersonal supernatural powers
Sioux: wakonda
Algonkians: manitu
USA: idea of luck
examples are found on all continents, but it is not universal (that is, it is not found in all societies)
R. R.
Marett was the first theorist to identify this concept
and distinguish it from animism
animism and animatism
together often are found as active beliefs within some societies
a people's continued belief in animism and animatism is based in two types of reinforcing phenomena
if bad things happen, they search for the cause in their society (or personally) and then try to appease the forces by getting rid of the injurious source
we try to make things better by prayer, or by reenacting special behavior that is connected in our thoughts to good times or to good luck (even if we rationalize such behavior [like knocking on wood] by saying we are doing it just to be safe, or just for fun, or we don't really believe in it)
2) perpetuation through mythic
tellings and retellings
the purpose of the retellings is to reinforce our beliefs, to rationalize our behavior
myths form the core of all religious systems: Christian, Judaic, shamanic systems, all
RELIGIOUS SPECIALISTS (370-374)
Priests and Priestesses (370) |
page 370 priest or priestess a full-time religious specialist
typically will have particular personality attributes seen as desirable for a suitable person within this position
in masculine religions, male
specialists will predominate; in feminine religions, female specialists
will predominate
in societies that exhibit a fair amount of equality in terms of economic, political, and domestic responsibility and rights, both priests and priestesses will often be found
religiously, they had a similar religious division, where a male and a female religious specialist would each have authority over a defined aspect of the supernatural realm
Shamans (370-374) |
page 371 shaman a part-time religious specialist whose special power to contact and manipulate supernatural beings and forces in an altered state of consciousness comes to him or her through some personal experience
usually isolate themselves from the rest of the group (like Jesus 40 days in the desert)
go through physical, psychological, or cognitive torture or distress in order to obtain a "breakthrough" and receive some supernatural gift
once the "novice" returns
to his/her group (usu. male), he is accorded the religious role of shamanóaccepted
as such by the manifestation of his specially-provided powers
the internalization of such a supernatural gift would be exhibitable through the personís effectiveness at curing, creating or dispelling spells, manipulation of the supernatural world, etc.
often true eccentrics within
the society
sometimes?but certainly not always?the eccentricities are manifestations of what would be considered an abnormal personality in some other society (transvestitism, homosexuality, psychosis)
shamans tend to hold great
power within the community
if the power is seen as producing evil or as being ineffective, the shaman will be driven out of the group or even killed ( because if left alive, the shaman may use his powers to wreak destruction on the community)
Haviland
mentions that shamans are found in modern state societies, such as the
USA
why does he say this?
is it valid? why or why not?
Original Study: [on pp. 372-373]
HEALING AMONG THE JU/'HOANSI OF THE KALAHARI
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RITUALS AND CEREMONIES (374-377)
means by which the individual or the society at large relate to and communicate with the sacred
2 major categories of rites covered here:
rites of intensification:
pertains to crises within the life of the group
Rites of Passage (374-376) |
page 374 rites of passage rituals, often religious in nature, marking important stages in the lives of individuals, such as birth, marriage, and death
a rite of passage is
enacted upon the event of predictable, normal, yet potentially traumatic
points in each individualís life
van Gennep identified birth, puberty, marriage, parenthood, and death as primary points along an individual's timeline where rites of passage occur
since van Gennep originated
the theory, Victor Turner primarily (but also others) have developed it
and extended its practical meaning
sexual orientation
residential
geographical
associational
segmentation of daily life
holiday celebration
etc.
three main stages identified
with
rites of passage
transition
(re)incorporation
page 374 separation in rites of passage, the ritual removal of the individual from society
in secular usages, symbolic removal from the group may be substituted
page 374 transition in rites of passage, a stage where the individual is isolated following separation and prior to incorporation into society
where the individual becomes physically and/or mentally incorporated into the identity of the stage into which she/he is going
the stage that Victor Turner focused on
the stage where everything becomes "topsy-turvy," where order becomes disorder, where roles are reversed, or whereóin generalówhatever is normal becomes abnormal
page 374 incorporation in rites of passage, reincorporation of the individual into society in his or her new status
upon reincorporation, that person
would henceforth be treated differently, acknowledged as having whatever
new responsibilities and new privileges accorded to the new identity
Rites of Intensification (376-377) |
page 374 rites of intensification religious rituals enacted during a group's real or potential crisis
also used in times of extreme natural fluctuations, such as the changing of the seasons, which are seen as natural disruptions, no matter how predictable
functions as a mechanism for social cohesion, to allay personal and societal fears, to revalidate social and cultural roles, norms, values
a particular rite of passage could serve as a rite of intensification
Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft (377-382) |
magic is the human practice of employing ritual, incantation, and other techniques to compel supernatural powers to act in certain ways
magic, thus, differs from
religion
where religion assumes human subjection to the supernatural, magic assumes that the supernatural is subject to human control
where religion assumes the ultimate mystery of the supernatural, magic assumes the ultimate knowledge of the supernatural
Sir James
George Frazer discussed the distinction between magic,
religion, and science in his The Golden Bough
he was the one who came up
with the long-standing distinctions made between two different kinds of
magic: imitative [or sympathetic] and contagious magic
page 378 imitative [sympathetic] magic magic based on the principle that like produces like
symbol: where one thing stands for another: the flag is a symbol of a country
sympathetic magic: where one thing like something else is supernaturally connected to it through the binding quality of similarity
page 378 contagious magic magic based on the principle that beings once in contact can influence one another after separation
typical are the contagious magic qualities of body parts: hair, fingernail clippings, extracted teeth; also any place or thing that a person has touched: dirt where a person has walked, the clothes a person has worn, etc.
examples abound in the modern world: the desire for autographs, groupies following celebrities, owning something once owned by someone famous/important, etc.; the historical value of someoneís prior presence: "Washington slept here" sort of phenomenon; George Harrisonís having spent time in his auntís house in Illinois, etc.
contagious and sympathetic magic can be invoked in the same act or thing: voodoo dolls, for example, are both in the image of the person they are directed at, and they must include some part of the personís body: hair, fingernail clippings, etc.
WITCHCRAFT (378-380)
page 378 witchcraft an explanation of events based on the belief certain individuals possess an innate, psychic power capable of causing harm, including sickness and death; also includes beliefs and practices of benevolent magic
modern-day witches in industrialized societies call their movement the "wiccan" movement and call the participants wiccans rather than witches
they cite historical biases against their religion, derived exclusively from Christianity, which vilified nature religions of the societies that eventually became Christianized (such as in Ireland and other Celtic lands)
they utilize the forces of nature, mostly to good effect
some groups also call themselves
neo-pagans
Ibibio Witchcraft (379-380) |
often, the accusers are the younger, educated members of society, who frequently accuse the older members of witchcraft, thereby indicating a generational hostility
nothing terrifically unique about Ibibio witchcraft: very similar in form, function, and expression as witchcraft the world over, historically and in the present
accusations of witchcraft arise whenever unexplainable misfortune falls: from the failure of a crop, to a disease, to failure in school
The witches
have purposively swallowed a substance consisting of needles, red, white, and black threads, and other material
having swallowed the substance the witch has the psychic power to cause harm, purely through psychic means, i.e., simply by willing the wicked deed
identifiable by antisocial
traits
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"black witches" simply are more evil, do more atrocious harm
the relative categorization
of witches is worldwide
Lucy Mair calls the two types "everyday witches" (the evil kind) and "nightmare witches" (the especially evil kind)
THE FUNCTIONS OF WITCHCRAFT (380-382)
people are reminded of the norms of society, those to which all people are held accountable
also, functions personally
to provide a sense of control over otherwise random evil
Anthropology Applied: [on p. 381]
RECONCILING MODERN MEDICINE WITH TRADITIONAL BELIEFS IN SWAZILAND
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Psychological Functions of Witchcraft among the Navajo (382) |
sorcerers practice contagious magic
wizards kill by injecting a cursed object into a victim
all forms of witches are identified
through divination
| page 382 | divination | a magical procedure for determining the cause of a particular event, such as illness, or foretelling the future |
once the witch is identified, he/she is interrogated or tortured until a confession is forthcoming
often the witch is exiled from the community
among the Navajo, the attack
on witches are a public way to vent frustration against larger forces (such
as the pressures exerted by American society)
The Functions of Religion (383-384) |
explain the unknown and make it known, thereby allaying fear and anxieties
provide a sense of security: the divine may be appealed to or manipulated or controlled
provide a release from responsibility for the social or moral order of society, since it is all divinely sanctioned
Social functions
establish precedent through myth for acceptable/unacceptable behavior
justify and perpetuate a social order
maintain social solidarity, social conformity, the unity of the group
reinforce social identity with the group
serve as an educational vehicle for community knowledge
Religion and Culture Change (384) |
the cargo
cults of Melanesia began at Buka, Solomon Islands,
in 1931
after the destruction of all whites, a cargo ship full of European goods would arrive
such cargo cults in the South Seas have arisen frequently over the years
the term cargo cult
is generally applied to any such movement that predicts:
promises the resurrection of the peoples ancestors
the coming of utopian riches
all cargo cults are types
of a larger category: revitalization movements
REVITALIZATION MOVEMENTS (385)
Mau Mau of Kenya
Mormons of 19th-20th centuries
Unification Church of Sun Myung Moon
Branch Davidians
Heaven's Gate cult
revitalization movements are:
encompasses not only religious restructuring, but the restructuring of the entire society and cultural system
it is thus revolutionary, where the only solution to overwhelming frustrations and anxieties and societal ills is seen to be the complete overturning of society
| page 385 | revitalization movements | social movements often of a religious nature, with the purpose of totally reforming a society |
2óincreased stress occurs, structurally and individually
3óchronic
stress, where societal measures to correct it are
insufficient
4óemergence of revitalization movement
or else, lose total sense of reality and basically self-destruct, ie, cause members personal harm (like Jim Jones)
Three
main processes involved in revitalization movements
charismatic leader or leaders arise who can motivate the people to react physically and socially against the prevailing system
routinization, wherein the often loose system and ideology of the charismatic leader is perpetuated through an organizational plan and a new leader or leaders are legitimized
typically, once the charismatic leader dies or leaves or in some way is no longer on the scene, the entire movement fails
Example: the original cargo cults and the Ghost Dance movement
2ómillenarism
called millenarism because the members of the group see their group as a chosen people who satisfy a long-term fulfillment of their Godís unfolding plan, often said to take 1000 years (a millennium)
Example: prophetic Judaism (from the Bible), Shakerism, Mormonism
3órevolution
that is, typically, a political revolution spurred by a radical change of ideology
even though this type is typically political, it often entails a religious-type fervor that characterizes the participants
Example: American Revolution, French Revolution, Russian Revolution, the 1979 Iranian revolution
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