|
|
Weeks 12-13: Anthropology 11--Introduction to Cultural AnthropologyLecture Notes for Chapter 12:Political Organization and the Maintenance of Order (324-359) |
Email: wolfordj@msx.umsl.edu
| Definitions for Chapter 12 | Outline for Chapter 12 | Anthro 11 homepage | GO TO BOTTOM OF THE PAGE |
[Wolford's A11 Web Page] [My Gateway Page] [Reserves Page] [Readings and Class Schedule]
Links to Section Headings inside this page:
Kinds of Political Systems | Political Organization and the Maintenance of Order | Social Control Through Law | Political Organization and External Affairs | Political Systems and the Question of Legitimacy | Religion and Politics
The important questions Haviland
cites for you to consider while reading this chapter:
What is political organization?How is order maintained within a society?
How is order maintained between societies?
How do political systems obtain peopleís allegiance?
Notes for William A. Haviland,Cultural Anthropology, 10th edition: |
Chapter 12: Political Organization and the Maintenance of Order (324-359) |
the means through which a society maintains social order and reduces social disorder
• not all political organizations utilize a government; although some do
Kinds of Political Systems (326-339) |
• tribes
• Centralized systems
• states
• Again, there is no inherent
superiority of one kind of system over another
• A system is either appropriate or inappropriate for its peopleís adaptability to its environment
• that is, a system, if it is to be judged, must be judged in terms of its own particular set of contexts, not in terms of some other society and that other society’s norms, etc.
UNCENTRALIZED POLITICAL SYSTEMS (326-333) |
• marriage and kinship are primary means of social organization
• decisions are made consensually among adults, usually in a democratic fashion
• males and females typically are included in decision-making
• individual deviation from group decisions are subject to social consequences, such as social ostracism, verbal abuse, even physical exclusion from the group
• tends to be a very flexible set of political systems
Band Organization (326-328)
page 326 band a small group of related households occupying a particular region, that gather periodically on an ad hoc basis but which do not yield their sovereignty to the larger collective
• tend to be related
• least complicated form of political organization
• tend to marry within the group
• stay together as long as the carrying capacity and density of social relations stays stable
• typical of food foragers
• probably oldest of political systems, since it is connected to oldest of food subsistence patterns (food foraging)
• Example: Ju/'hoansi of the Kalahari
• the kxau symbolizes the people when interacting with others
• when kxau leaves or dies, a new one simply takes his/her place
• his only benefit is the right to choose first spot for his fire in a new campsite
• his only duties are to choose the campsite and to represent the band in interband negotiations
• does not: organize hunting, arrange marriages, distribute goods
• population density typically does not exceed
one person per square mile
Tribal Organization (328-331)
page 328 tribe a group of nominally independent communities occupying a specific region and sharing a common language and culture integrated by some unifying factor
• typically, horticultural or pastoral
• typically larger than bands (pop. exceeds 1 person/sq.mile, sometimes as much as 250 people/sq.mile)
• tribes will have several smaller
groups within that form subordinate groups
• like bands, tribal leaders
have very little actual authority
• status is based on wealth, wealth on yams and esp. pigs
• they do horde goods, but they are considered wealthy only if they loan out a lot of goodsóthey acquire debt
• traits of the Big Man (tonowi) of Kapauku of Western New Guinea
• have a large list of people who owe him?thus, is perceived as generous
• is male
• is a good talker, a man of words
Kinship Organization (331-332)
• but people throughout the various bands that form the tribe are related to one another through clans
• the dispersal of clans throughout the tribal system is a way to unify the entire tribe?a sublevel of tribal organization
page 331 segmentary lineage system a form of political organization in which a larger group is broken up into clans that are further divided into lineages
• relatively rare form of political system
• economy: just above subsistence
• political system: informal, with (rarely) official office holders
• Sahlins: segmentary lineage
systems are the normal way for tribes to grow
Example used: Nuer
of East Africa (Sudan)
• lineages in such systems are broken down (that is, segmented) at different levels: from macro-level of clans, to maximal lineages, to major lineages, to minimal lineages
• Actions occur at minimal lineage
level
• if disputes continue, the next level gets involved and alliances are formed
• Disputes are frequent, and
usually result in feuds
• Ultimately, individuals seen as standing outside the lineage system becomes involved, who are seen as conciliators
• has a lot of social and cultural authority
• mediates by negotiating exchange of "blood-cattle": exchange of cattle instead of going into war where people would die
• if one or both parties will not accept his decision, he has no political power to enforce it
Age-Grade Organization (332)
• they experience all aspects of pragmatic and ritual life together
• as the age grade reaches each level of tribal responsibility, that age grade takes over the tribal functions
• when they reach elder age, the whole group become the elders
• etc.
Association Organization (332-333)
• these tend to be unifying features
for the entire tribe
CENTRALIZED POLITICAL SYSTEMS (333-337) |
• when it is invested in a body of individuals, it is called a state
Chiefdoms (333-335)
page 333 chiefdom a regional polity in which two or more local groups are organized under a single chief, who is at the head of a ranked hierarchy of people
• truly an authority figure?has power to control people
• typically redistributive systems
• has power to conscript people into military service
• has power to distribute land
• has power to adjudicate, typically between tribes under its control
• chiefdoms can be multilayered: chiefdoms under superior chiefdoms
• typically an unstable political system
• this was the case in precolonial Hawaii
• Kpelle
of Liberia is a chiefdom system that is fairly stable
State Systems (335-337)
page 335 state in anthropology, a centralized political system that may legitimately use force to maintain social order
• political power is centralized in a government
• minimum institutions of the
state: a bureaucracy. a military, a religion
• states began about 5,000 years ago
• have shown a tendency toward instability, although the official doctrine is permanence
page 335 nation communities of people who see themselves as "one people" on the basis of common ancestry, history, society, institutions, ideology, territory, language, and (often) religion
• today there are over 5,000 nations
• a state is rarely composed
of only one nation
• a primary distinguishing trait
of states is the delegation of executive authority
• police, military, foreign ministries, war ministries, internal security
• authority is thus impersonal and quite predictable
• typical
states
• others less well-known: Swazi of Swaziland in southeast Africa
• hereditary aristocracy
• elaborate kinship rituals
• statewide age-sets
POLITICAL LEADERSHIP AND GENDER (337-339) |
• exceptions are notable because
they
are exceptions
• Corazon Aquino of Philippines
• Benazir Bhutto of Pakistan
• when women do assume positions
of power, it is usually because of their association with men
• likewise, they typically take on the gender traits typical of males in their societyóin Western society, being tough and aggressive and assertive
• nonetheless, women have regularly enjoyed as much political power as men in many societies
• Iroquois: men were chosen as heads of the political organizations above the household level, but the women in fact controlled who would fill what position
• Igbo of West Africa (Nigeria): a man would rise to the level of obi (head of the men) while a woman would rise to the level of omu (head of the women); the two would be totally unrelated (or at least, their relationship was not a prerequisite of her ascension to the position)
• when the British imposed colonial rule and structure over the Igbo, the result was the actual loss of political power by the women, because women have relatively no power in the British system
Political Organization and The Maintenance of Order (339-344) |
• in centralized societies, control is largely (but certainly not completely) externalized (through institutions like police, military, religion, etc.)
• in uncentralized societies, control is largely internalized, through such social actions as gossip, belief in supernatural retribution, public censure, etc.
• a case study involves the Wape people of Papua New Guinea
• if hunter is unsuccessful in hunt, it is the whole community who must atone, because the whole community is involved in the process of the hunt
• the hunter is a symbolic representative
of the entire community; his failure represents the ancestors' anger at
the entire community, not against him
INTERNALIZED CONTROLS (339) |
• Examples:
• US citizens' abhorrence at the idea of incest, etc.
• religious beliefs
Return to Top
page 339 cultural control control through beliefs and values deeply internalized in the minds of individuals
EXTERNALIZED CONTROLS (340-44) |
page 339 social control control over groups through open coercion
• the external reinforcement can be either positive or negative
• Negative: law, gossip, imprisonment, execution, ostracism
• all of these external reinforcements
are called sanctions
page 340 sanctions externalized social controls designed to encourage conformity to social norms
• informal: those operating unofficially, such as gossip, taunting, ridicule, vandalism, social exclusion
• sanctions always operate with
an aim to make individuals conform to the norm
page 341 law formal negative sanctions
• explicitly and precisely regulate the people's behavior
Original Study: [on pp. 342-344]
LIMITS ON POWER IN BEDOUIN SOCIETY
• Group: Awlad Ali• A society that values equality |
Social Control Through Law (344-350) |
DEFINITION OF LAW (345-346) |
• since law and sanctions are culturally specific and vary tremendously, even within the same society (e.g., local, state, federal laws in the USA) and between different groups within the same society, no universal definition is possible or (really) desirable
• E. Adamson Hoebel derived
a generalized understanding of law by emphasizing that
• a law, it should be emphasized, is not always
enforced by a central judiciary, as we might assume simply by looking at
our own system
FUNCTIONS OF LAW (346-347) |
• law gives authority to use coercion to enforcement of sanctions
• redefines social relations and ensures social flexibility
• given these functions, laws must adapt to changes
in society as well as maintain the stable norms of society
CRIME (347-350) |
• Western society: distinctions are made between 1) violations against the state (a criminal offense) and 2) violations against the individual (a civil offense)
• Non-Western societies: crimes are almost always seen as crimes against the individual
• distinctions are made between public offenses (those of concern to the larger community) and private offenses (those of concern to a few individuals)
page 347 negotiation the use of direct argument and compromise by the parties to a dispute to arrive voluntarily at a mutually satisfactory agreement
page 347 mediation settlement of a dispute through negotiation assisted by an unbiased third party
page 347 adjudication mediation with an unbiased third party making the ultimate decision
• mediation: when a third party is called in to resolve the difference; typical of bands and tribes; the third party has no coercive power, but his/her decision is effected by the power of his/her prestige
• adjudication: when a third party is called in; typical of chiefdoms and states; the third party has coercive power
• Decisions can be seen as deriving from supernatural
or rational sources
• Western polygraph operator
• both function in much the same way: judging whether the stress of the testee is such as to indicate guilt, and then analyzing the date accordingly
Anthropology Applied: [on p. 349]
DISPUTE RESOLUTION AND THE ANTHROPOLOGIST
|
Political Organization and External Affairs (350-354) |
• when it is external, it often takes the form of war
WAR (350-354) |
• likely, it has developed only
over the last 10,000 years
• states themselves are the political system most likely to engage in war
• pastoralists too
page 352 worldviews the conceptions, explicit and implicit, an individual or society has of the limits and workings of its world;
[Toelken after Hall: a perceptual universe; a sense of reality]
• typically, the warlike peoples will see themselves as manipulating their environment, as controlling it, dominating it
Political Systems and the Question of Legitimacy (354-355) |
• the more coercion the sanctions require, the greater likelihood for resentment and resistance among the people
• in fact, the coercive arms of a government, such as armies and the military, may themselves prove to be a dangerous political force, which is not overlooked by many in power
• Legitimacy
is another form of support for the existing political leadership
• the head of the Dahomey acquires legitimacy simply through his position as the oldest living male member of the society
• the tonowi's power derives from his wealth, which is the highest status marker in Kapaukuan society
• legitimacy lasts as long as
the holder of power satisfies the expectation of the people to fulfill
their needs based on their norms (economic, religious, etc.)
Religion and Politics (355) |
• medieval Europe obviously tied religion and politics tightly together
• the Aztec state in pre-Columbian America was a theocracy (religious state)
• modern Iran is a self-declared Islamic state
• Ireland is a country divided by religious differences
• USA's Declaration of Independence is based on Christianity, citing God frequently
• our money cites the Christian God
• the point is: political legitimization
is typically grounded in religion
| Return to A11 Page | Go to Readings and Class Schedule | Go to CourseInfo at mygateway.umsl.edu | Return to Professor Wolford's Homepage | Return to Top |
