Ellen Dissanayake

From: Subject: Ellen Dissanayake - Book Review: Darwin Meets Literary Theory (Review of: Evolution and Literary Theory, Joseph Carroll) - Philosophy and Literature 20:1 Date: Tue, 12 Aug 2008 21:57:53 -0500 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; type="text/html"; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0000_01C8FCC6.78B98F10" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2900.3198 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01C8FCC6.78B98F10 Content-Type: text/html; charset="utf-8" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/philosophy_and_literature/v020/20.1br_carroll.html =EF=BB=BF Ellen Dissanayake - Book Review: Darwin Meets = Literary Theory (Review of: Evolution and Literary Theory, Joseph = Carroll) - Philosophy and Literature 20:1

Philosophy and Literature 20.1 (1996) 229-239

Critical=20 Discussions

Darwin Meets Literary Theory

Evolution and Literary Theory, = by Joseph=20 Carroll; xi & 518 pp. Columbia: University of Missouri = Press,=20 1995, $44.95.

In my experience, most literary theorists, even those who = participate=20 in conferences called "Literature and Science," know little about=20 evolution, and don't want to know. For them, "science" means = information=20 theory, chaos or catastrophe theory, fractals, pataphysics, = "autopoeisis"=20 or self-organization, emergence, cyborgs, hypertext, virtual signs = and=20 other aspects of sci-fi, or techno-politics. (I encountered these = subjects=20 at a comparative literature conference I attended in March 1995.) = These=20 "scientific" positions are used as trendy metaphors for talking = about=20 chance, uncertainty, accident, ideology, and multidimensionality = in=20 literary works or in the aims of their authors. In other words, = the=20 buzzwords of contemporary science become one more angle from which = to view=20 or project another facet onto the glassy, self-reflective edifice = of=20 contemporary literary theory, rather than a means from which to = shatter it=20 and build again from scratch with more earthy, substantial = materials.=20 Joseph Carroll's book provides the view and the means for this = genuinely=20 new and constructive (if initially destructive) possibility.=20

It is ironic that in the present critical climate the very = virtues of=20 the book might be seen by some as faults--e.g., the lucid, elegant = writing=20 and the erudition and interdisciplinarity of the work as a whole. = Carroll=20 [End Page 229] writes clearly, authoritatively, without = jargon, and=20 with frequent, delicious wit. His values, aims, explanations, = evidence,=20 and criticisms are concisely and plainly stated. This is in marked = contrast to the enigmatic and idiosyncratic nature of much recent=20 criticism, and might have the initially disorienting effect of = returning=20 to earth and breathing pure oxygen after one has become accustomed = to the=20 thin and rarefied atmosphere of remote, icy peaks.=20

Carroll offers wide-ranging and illuminating discussions of = standard=20 literary and critical works from both the European and = Anglo-American=20 tradition over the past several centuries, and refers to dozens of = writers=20 from diverse periods and nationalities. Additionally he enlists, = and=20 criticizes where appropriate, ideas from such diverse nonliterary = figures=20 as Darwin himself and writers about Darwin, T. H. Huxley, Konrad = Lorenz,=20 John Bowlby, Sir John Eccles, the prominent sociobiologists and=20 evolutionary psychologists, S. J. Gould, Richard Lewontin, Derek=20 Bickerton, Piaget, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, Clifford Geertz, H. = J.=20 Eysenck, Cardinal Newman, Thorstein Veblen, Trotsky, Raymond = Williams, and=20 Richard Rorty, among others.=20

One can be forgiven for wishing to forego an exploration of = this=20 demanding array of knowledge argued from the unfamiliar = perspective of=20 evolutionary biology. For in order seriously to consider Carroll's = new way=20 of looking at human endeavor (including literature) one must also = look=20 critically at what was laboriously mastered during all those years = of=20 graduate school and tenure-driven writing for publication. No one = wants to=20 be persuaded to give up a view of the world that has been mastered = with=20 painstaking diligence. Still less does anyone want to spend time = with=20 something that according to conventional academic wisdom is = downright=20 wrong-headed. This is really the challenge of Carroll's = book--because such=20 minor matters as the plain unfashionable title, clear writing, = impressive=20 erudition, and dated or forgotten thinkers can be overcome if the = stakes=20 are high enough.=20

I wish to suggest that the stakes are high enough and = that the=20 time is right for this inevitable change of viewpoint. Along with = others=20 in diverse fields such as cognitive and developmental psychology,=20 personality theory, neurology, medicine, sociology, political = science,=20 epistemology, cultural anthropology, ethics, and linguistics, I = find the=20 Darwinian perspective to offer the most comprehensive and viable=20 possibility for an understanding of human behavior and culture, = including=20 the arts. Joseph Carroll admirably articulates this position and = applies=20 it to literary theory. I invite scholars who think that = evolutionary=20 explanations [End Page 230] are erroneous, dangerous, = reductionist,=20 simplistic, or irrelevant to read Carroll and deal seriously with = his=20 arguments. His book should be the central text for theory classes = and=20 seminars, as well as the subject of conferences. Those who would = dismiss=20 it should have the courage and curiosity to lay aside their = misgivings and=20 have a look. Especially those who are dissatisfied with the = surfeit of=20 tinselly, vacuous, top-down pyrotechnics in current literary = theory can=20 seek their salvation here in a new and nourishing, bottom-up = approach.=20

The prejudice against evolutionary theory as a method of = understanding=20 human behavior is, like most prejudice, built on ignorance. = "Social=20 Darwinism"--the use of Darwinian evolutionary theory to justify = social=20 inequality and political oppression--was, and is, despicable and = wrong.=20 Yet this is not Darwinism. Tarring all evolutionary theory with = the brush=20 of Social Darwinism is tantamount to dismissing modern medicine = because of=20 the Nazis' medical experiments. One can be a committed Darwinian = and=20 deplore those who blame the unfortunate or weak for their = afflictions.=20

It is unfortunate that an occupational requirement of a = Darwinist among=20 the literati and other humanists must be that one spend valuable = pages=20 disarming or rebutting the inevitable misperceptions and = hostilities=20 before getting down to what one is about. Intellectuals who have = found it=20 possible to master and accept the subtleties and complexities of = Freudian=20 psychology, Marxist economics, Einsteinian physics, and = poststructuralist=20 philosophy nevertheless continue to think simplistically and = erroneously=20 about Darwinian evolutionary theory. For example, most people = mistakenly=20 assume "evolution" means that our behavior is "genetically = determined."=20 This is false. Carroll, like most evolutionists, is at pains to = stress=20 that human nature consists of evolved innate dispositions = or=20 tendencies that cultures then mold, regulate, and = elaborate.=20 Additionally, it does not help that the adjective "Darwinian" is = routinely=20 used when one means "self-interested," "ruthless," or = "competitive." False=20 again, or certainly oversimplified. Carroll devotes considerable=20 discussion to the crucial importance of sympathy (see below), and = takes=20 the more hard-line sociobiologists to task for their neglect or = dismissal=20 of this elementary motive in human behavior, thereby segregating = morality=20 from biology. In company with sociologist, James Q. Wilson, and = economist,=20 Robert H. Frank, Carroll views sympathy as an innate, evolved=20 characteristic, and an important source of the moral standards we = use to=20 judge others as well as ourselves.=20

In view of the persistence of these misperceptions, some = evolutionists=20 [End Page 231] have suggested, partly in jest, that humans = have=20 evolved to be resistant to the idea that they have evolved. = Certainly this=20 resistance does seem to be deeply dyed. Yet in an age where it is = accepted=20 that not only eye color, height, and the tendency to obesity are=20 inherited, but also temperamental characteristics like shyness,=20 risk-taking, and learning styles, it seems closed-minded to reject = out of=20 hand the relevance of evolutionary biology to the subjects that = concern=20 academics, whether philosophy, the arts, or the human sciences.=20

What is that relevance? Simply stated, the relevance of = evolutionary=20 theory to literature and literary theory is that it provides a = firm basis=20 for considering literature's relevance to life. Until recently, = this was=20 hardly a controversial idea--indeed it seemed self-evident. But = more than=20 any other previous philosophical starting point, evolutionary = theory=20 furnishes a convincing epistemology from which to view all of = human=20 endeavor (including, here, literature). It makes possible = Carroll's=20 plainspoken thesis that literary works reflect and articulate = the vital=20 motives and interests of human beings as living organisms--an=20 assumption that "conflicts fundamentally with the currently = pervasive=20 disposition to regard all motives and interests as merely = self-reflective=20 linguistic or cultural functions" (p. 3). To an evolutionist, but = contrary=20 to received dogma, humans are not wax tablets, nor do language and = culture=20 provide all qualitative content and structure for human = experience.=20

Evolutionary epistemology establishes our fundamental = rootedness in the=20 real world; it connects us with humans past and present, near and = far, and=20 with the rest of life. Like other living things, humans have = evolved to=20 prosper in a particular environment. Our senses and minds are = adapted to=20 perceive and process the parts of the world that are relevant to = our=20 lives; as Carroll says, "organisms, from paramecia to human = beings, that=20 are consistently mistaken about the nature of things do not = survive to=20 perpetuate their genetically constrained disposition to error" (p. = 78).=20 Correspondingly, "the kind of environment envisioned by Derrida = and=20 Foucault, one consisting wholly of differences, ruptures, gaps,=20 dispersions, and discontinuities, is biologically impossible" (p. = 214).=20

Evolutionary epistemology further provides a basis for = appreciating the=20 power and persistence of the universal proclivities that make up = human=20 nature. These include adaptive innate psychological structures = that direct=20 and regulate mental and emotional life, such as the need and = ability to=20 make sense of the world--to represent one's own sense of things. = [End=20 Page 232]=20

In Carroll's evolutionary scheme, literature is a form of = knowledge,=20 related to other forms of cognitive activity. Literary = representation,=20 like any representation, is a form of "cognitive mapping"--i.e., = an=20 extension of the organism's adaptive orientation to an environment = that is=20 in the first instance concrete and material. Thus cognitive = (including=20 rational, emotional, and sensory functions) and linguistic = categories have=20 evolved in adaptive relation to an actual world: they do not = "construct"=20 it. Language corresponds to a reality that exists outside of = language (p.=20 97). Carroll's is a theory of imitation: literature maps the = world,=20 particularly the subjective reality of human experience. "Life is = the=20 central source of imaginative power" (p. 260).=20

To an evolutionist, it seems faintly ridiculous to expend time = and ink=20 establishing that living things exist in a real world and have = vital=20 interests and concerns--such as staying alive and well, being = accepted and=20 thought well of by associates, developing normally both physically = and=20 socially, learning the ways of one's fellows, engaging in activity = that is=20 materially, emotionally, and socially rewarding, finding a mate = and=20 mating, producing and caring for offspring, seeing one's offspring = thrive,=20 being able to affect outcomes to things that one cares about, and = so=20 forth. Like pre-Paleolithic hominids on the African savannah, = modern=20 hunter-gatherers such as Kalahari Bushmen (and indeed Wall Street=20 executives, poststructural theorists, and any other humans one = comes=20 across today) pay attention to, and feel strongly about, these = things and=20 impediments to or conflicts arising from them. One should then not = be=20 surprised that literary works reflect and articulate these vital = motives=20 and interests, that literary images are correlative of the = psychological=20 structures that comprise these motives and interests, and that we = respond=20 with sympathy and engagement to these as presented in literary and = other=20 works.=20

Carroll brings a robust common sense to such statements from = the=20 current literary establishment as J. Hillis Miller's "we make = things what=20 they are by naming them in one way or another," pointing out that = only=20 academics whose ideas have no immediate and discernible = consequences for=20 life (except to procure admiration from colleagues) could make = such=20 claims. Scientists, architects, businessmen, or soldiers regularly = encounter the possibility of failed experiments, collapsed = buildings,=20 bankruptcies, and casualties of battle, and hence would be = reluctant to=20 place such faith in the power of merely verbal constructions.=20

The position of an evolutionist in the literary theory = establishment=20 [End Page 233] today is rather like that of a Copernican = speaking=20 to medieval astronomer-theologians, whose wheels-within-wheels = arguments=20 about the nature of the cosmos have become ever more convoluted = and=20 specious. Carroll turns his erudition and considerable mental = agility and=20 verbal skill on such present-day stargazers and luminaries of the = literary=20 and social theory cosmos as L=C3=A9vi-Strauss, Saussure, Barthes, = Derrida,=20 Althusser, Lacan, Bloom, Fish, Jameson, Lyotard, Bakhtin, Hillis = Miller,=20 and especially, Foucault. His characterizations and analyses of = the=20 untenability of their positions and methods (including "the = principle of=20 parasitic negativity," the Foucauldian "verbal ballet," and the=20 "truistic-radical shuffle") are invariably stimulating, keen, and=20 delectable. Like brandied fruits in an already delicious cake, I = found=20 myself waiting expectantly for the next one--e.g., his = characterization of=20 Stanley Fish's peculiar talent "of synthesizing the elementary = assumptions=20 of poststructuralist thought and deploying them in common = language, thus=20 creating a poststructuralist facsimile of common sense," (p. 148) = or=20 Foucault's "totalized principle of historical incoherence" (p. = 155).=20

However, the necessity for evolutionary Copernicans to deal = with=20 literary Ptolemaists does tend to result in an unwieldy exposition = of=20 one's main thesis. Carroll's is really two, or even three, books: = the=20 first is a trenchant assault on contemporary critical theory from = a=20 well-defended evolutionary epistemological position. The second is = a=20 constructive theory of literature based on that same position. The = constructive theory is frequently interrupted by volleys at the=20 opposition, and minor disputes with colleagues, since Carroll = engages in=20 polemical argument with a variety of theorists in many fields, = even=20 writers with whom he generally agrees. He is very much his own = man, and=20 one of the rewards of his book is to experience his fine analytic = and=20 verbal skills at work on a vast assortment of philosophical, = critical, and=20 biological ideas. However, the need to deactivate landmines and = otherwise=20 clear the ground at the same time as he constructs signposts and = bivouacs=20 along the path toward his ultimate goal makes for a somewhat = uneven=20 journey.=20

In addition to these two projects, there are substantial = swathes of=20 commentary on a broad array of literary works and ideas that are=20 tangentially relevant to his thesis (since it addresses all = literature).=20 Because Carroll takes pains to lay out the strands of each = treatment or=20 argument before he analyzes and uses or rejects (or decimates) = parts or=20 all of them, one learns a great deal. Yet the reader's progress = from A to=20 B, not to mention M or Z, can be far from straightforward. [End = Page=20 234]=20

Yet Evolution and Literary Theory succeeds spectacularly = in=20 making the case for evolutionary epistemology and its = applicability to=20 literary matters, which includes of course the author's cogent and = telling=20 arguments against prevailing literary theory. Carroll shows the = relevance=20 of his evolutionary position to many areas of current theoretical=20 contention such as sexuality (including gender and sexual = orientation),=20 patriarchy, personality, and the person. Especially interesting = and=20 relevant is his emphasis on the importance of affiliation and = sympathy,=20 inherent in the argument that fitness in humans must include = positive=20 social sentiments. He provocatively revises Freudian psychology = and its=20 attendant literary applications according to John Bowlby's = "attachment"=20 model, firmly grounded in human ethology and evolution. Bowlby's = theories=20 have gained increasing attention from neuroscientists and from=20 psychoanalysts who have become skeptical of narrow Oedipal = explanations of=20 human affective disorders, emphasizing instead not just the origin = of=20 neurosis in childhood trauma but the formative persisting = influence of=20 childhood experience on adult life. ¹ Carroll also enlists the human penchant = for sympathy=20 and affiliation to emphasize that in responding to a literary = work, "what=20 we interpret is not merely a text but also a communicative act, = and what=20 we understand is a configuration of words that is always, = necessarily,=20 part of the larger total situation of the speaker" (p. 158).=20

A literary perspective based on evolved innate dispositions or=20 tendencies also supports the claim that there is a common range of = "human=20 nature" that subsumes differences of sex, race, and the = characteristics of=20 individual identity: "This commonality is, no doubt, an important=20 contributing cause for our ability to read with appreciation and = sympathy=20 the works of authors who are from epochs, levels of civilization,=20 cultural, ideological, and religious orientations, sexes or sexual = orientations, races, and classes different from our own, and who = also have=20 vastly different personal characteristics" (p. 159). Certainly = attention=20 to a fundamental similarity underlying individual difference is a = salutary=20 emphasis, considering present divisiveness in the usual discourses = of=20 multiculturalism and gender. Indeed, evolutionary theory is = especially=20 well-suited for multicultural and other approaches to = "non-elitist" arts,=20 enabling appreciation of universal vital aims and concerns as well = as=20 individual manifestations of these; used with sensitivity, it is = no more=20 reductionist or simplistic than archetypal or psychoanalytic or = Marxist=20 principles in literary studies, which literary scholars happily = adopt.=20 [End Page 235]=20

According to much contemporary theory, interpretation should = reveal to=20 us how texts are constructed by external cultural factors working = through=20 an author. Carroll's view of criticism, however, is that the = interpreter=20 articulates how literary works are extensions of ourselves as = humans: they=20 give us subjective knowledge of what it is like to be this = peculiar kind=20 of being. By means of this testing ground for increased subtleties = and=20 complexities, we raise our perceptual faculties and appreciation = of=20 nuances, create identities, and understand the range of human = experience=20 in ourselves and other people. In this sense, literature both = embodies and=20 enhances life. As it is not enough simply to eat because we are=20 hungry--indeed, we want to know what is possible and good or bad = to eat,=20 and how to savor our food--so also we want to know what is = possible and=20 good or bad in the rest of experience. Our common human nature = makes=20 possible this knowledge and enhancement.=20

Like other evolutionary theorists who have addressed = literature,=20 ² Carroll's major emphasis is on thematic = content:=20 "the most important distinguishing criterion of literary = representation is=20 its subject matter: the subjective quality of human experience" = (p. 129).=20 Certainly Freudians, Marxists, Derrideans, and phenomenologists = all=20 propose elementary explanatory terms and reduce the thematic = structure of=20 literary texts to those terms, and Carroll offers his own = bioevolutionary=20 table of thematic categories. Rather than merely assume concepts = like=20 Oedipal lust, castration anxiety, economic and political = exploitation,=20 repression, concealment, and accident, Carroll's scheme offers = thematic=20 categories that are both universal and flexible. These are nested: = the=20 cosmos, life (bios), the specifically human (antropos), social = (polis),=20 the family (genos), the couple (dyad), and the individual = (psyche). Within=20 the individual, he identifies four main psychic elements: = sensation,=20 feeling, reason, and will; "imagination" is a synthetic faculty = that=20 employs all these faculties to create figurative structures.=20

Any given figurative structure--a poem, = play,=20 or story--presupposes a total conceptual order, that is, a map = or model=20 that represents the elements the world comprises and the = relations among=20 these elements. The categories in the thematic table constitute = simply a=20 minimal set of such elements. Each category can be analyzed into = a=20 virtually infinite number of components, and at either the = cultural or=20 individual level, these components could be defined and combined = in a=20 potentially infinite number of ways to construct radically = different=20 models of how the [End Page 236] world works. In any such = model,=20 a potentially infinite number of specific figurative structures = could be=20 generated as particular instances of the relations among the = elements of=20 the model. (p. 223)

. . . The cognitive map within the psyche is the means = through which the individual seeks to comprehend the world. Each = work of=20 literature is itself a cognitive map produced by the mind of an = author.=20 (p. 225)

For Carroll, the value of such a scheme is that its = evolutionary basis=20 is broad enough to encompass other critical works that have = universalized=20 preoccupations that are, variously, moral, aesthetic, thematic, = emotional,=20 psychosexual, social, anthropological, or religious and = philosophical.=20 Within the terms of the thematic table, any and all of these = emphases can=20 serve as distinct possible fields of concern both for the author = of a work=20 (including works of non-narrative poetry) and for the protagonists = in=20 dramatic situations. Also, the scheme challenges current = theoretical=20 claims that "the human" is itself merely a delusory fabrication of = discourse.=20

One might well wonder what the limitations of an evolutionary = approach=20 to literature might be, and what it holds for the future. So far = it has=20 not been helpful in assessing literary quality. While an = evolutionary=20 approach has been used (and could be applied almost infinitely) to = identify and talk about biologically salient themes, it has shown = much=20 less potential to understand why one or another rendition of a = theme is or=20 can be regarded as "better" or "worse," successful or more = successful than=20 another. Only Nancy Easterlin among evolutionary literary = theorists has,=20 to my knowledge, recognized, much less attempted to deal with, = this=20 problem. ³ Carroll does not address the issue.=20

Nor in his many assaults on contemporary literary theorists of = all=20 persuasions does he mention the inherent limitations of claims = about=20 reality and literature based almost exclusively on written = texts.=20 Reading and writing have occurred during only the most recent = 1/200th of=20 the time-span of human evolution; even today they are important to = only a=20 fraction of humankind. Yet human literature (in the sense of = giving=20 considered aesthetic form to utterance, as in "oral literature") = has=20 certainly characterized humans from Neolithic times and most = likely was=20 practiced for millennia before that. In our own time, some = scholars have=20 looked at oral literary practice, but usually under the banner of=20 relativistic multiculturalism.=20

Carroll's evolutionary perspective is founded of course on the = vital=20 concerns and interests of ancestral as well as modern literate = humans.=20 [End Page 237] Yet, although he does mention the importance = to=20 preliterates of dramatic mythic constructs, which are "precisely = parallel=20 to a literary work" by a modern author (p. 317), he does not = pointedly=20 discuss the possible evolutionary origins and functions of = narrative or=20 storytelling. While his book is understandably concerned with = applying an=20 evolutionary perspective to written literature and especially to = the=20 critical theories that have been devised, primarily in the past = two=20 centuries, to explain it, I would have liked for him to have = addressed=20 oral literature as part of universal human practice.=20

An emphasis on written texts perhaps skews our attention to = thematics,=20 allowing the "tonal" and "aesthetic" aspects of literature to be=20 relatively neglected. Recognition of the preeminence of oral = transmission=20 for hundreds of thousands of generations should stimulate = investigation of=20 universal tonal and aesthetic figurations (which in any case = Carroll=20 believes to be of less importance than thematic figurations). = Formal=20 poetic devices of repetition (including alliteration, assonance, = rhyme,=20 refrains, reduplication, antiphony, parallelism) and variation are = universally found, and are inherently affecting (emotionally) and=20 effective (cognitively, motivationally) to the human speaker and = hearer.=20 They also surely correspond to evolved neural processes and might = well=20 repay evolutionary-based study, as described by Frederick Turner = in his=20 investigation of poetic meter as a neurophysiological aptitude = with=20 identifiable adaptive functions, a demonstrable basis in = psychophysics,=20 and a plausible mechanism in terms of known brain structures. = ⁴=20

But these are matters for other books or other scholars. Joseph = Carroll=20 not only has produced the first magnum opus that applies an = evolutionary approach to literature, but has marshalled an = impressive=20 compendium of provocative challenges to poststructuralist = pronouncements=20 that demand a response from their purveyors and partisans. I can = imagine a=20 day when scholars will shake their heads in amazement that the = mental=20 exhaust emitted by a few primarily Gallic savants engulfed and = stupefied a=20 whole generation of academics in its hypnotic miasma. It will be=20 interesting to re-examine the social conditions that fostered this = dominion. When the history of the demise of poststructuralist = theory is=20 written, Joseph Carroll's work is sure to be in the vanguard of = the=20 fog-dispellants that helped to clear the air and make possible a = more=20 humane, because truly human, atmosphere of literary and social=20 understanding.

New School for Social = Research

Notes

1. A. N. Schore, Affect Regulation and the = Origin of the=20 Self: The Neurobiology of Emotional Development (Hillsdale, = N.J.:=20 Erlbaum, 1994).=20

2. Alexander Argyros, A Blessed Rage for = Order:=20 Deconstruction, Evolution, and Chaos (Ann Arbor: University of = Michigan Press, 1991); Leighton Brett Cooke, "Pushkin and the = femme=20 fatale: Jealousy in The Gypsies," California Slavic=20 Studies 14 (1992): 99-126; "Mrs. Komarovskij: Sexual Abuse in=20 Doctor Zivago," Russian Language Journal 48=20 (1994):103-26; "Sociobiology, Science Fiction and the Future,"=20 Foundation 60 (1994): 42-51; "Microplots: The Case of = Swan=20 Lake," Human Nature 6 (1995): 183-96; Margaret Nesse,=20 "Guinevere's Choice," Human Nature 6 (1995): 145-63; Robert = Storey,=20 "'I Am I Because My Little Dog Knows Me': Prolegomenon to a Theory = of=20 Mimesis," in After Poststructuralism: Interdisciplinarity and = Literary=20 Theory, Nancy Easterlin and Barbara Riebling, eds. (Evanston:=20 Northwestern University Press, 1993), pp. 45-70.=20

3. Nancy Easterlin, "Do Cognitive Predispositions = Predict=20 or Determine Literary Value Judgments? Narrativity, Plot and = Aesthetics"=20 (unpublished paper, 1995).=20

4. Frederick Turner, "The Neural Lyre: Poetic = Meter, the=20 Brain, and Time," in Natural Classicism: Essays on Literature = and=20 Science (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992), = pp.=20 61-108.

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