• This industry is projected to be one of the fastest growing through the year 2010.
• Nearly one-fifth of all workers are self-employed.
• About 70 percent of workers have a bachelor’s degree or higher; half of all jobs are in managerial, business, financial, and professional occupations.
• This industry is one of the highest paying.

Firms in management and public relations services offer one or more resources that clients cannot provide themselves. Usually this resource is expertise—in the form of knowledge, experience, special skills, or creativity, but sometimes the resource is time or personnel that the client cannot spare. Clients are large and small for-profit firms in the private sector; bodies of State, local, or Federal Government; institutions, such as hospitals, universities, unions, and trade groups; and foreign governments or businesses.

The management and public relations services industry is diverse. In general, firms in management or other business consulting offer operational advice, those in public relations services advise and implement public exposure strategies, and firms in facility support management services furnish administrative services. Management services and management consulting are by far the largest sectors, together accounting for most of the industry’s revenue. The facility support, business consulting, and public relations segments bring in the remaining revenue.

Management consulting firms advise on almost any aspect of corporate operations, including marketing; finance; corporate strategy and organization; manufacturing and technology; information systems and data processing; electronic commerce ("e-commerce") or business; and human resources, benefits, and compensation. Depending on the nature of clients’ problems and needs, management consulting firms might advise how best to enter a new market or increase the client's share in an existing market. They might suggest how to get the most out of a computer network or which department or subsidiary should be sold, shut down, or merged. They might recommend how to adhere to Federal environmental regulations or when to issue a new public offering of stock. Occasionally, management consulting firms also help implement their own advice.

Management consulting has grown rapidly over the past several decades, as businesses increasingly use consulting services. Using consultants is advantageous, because these experts are experienced, welltrained, and abreast of the latest technologies, government regulations, and management and production techniques. In addition, consultants are cost effective, because they can be hired temporarily and can objectively perform their duties, free of the influence of company politics.

Miscellaneous business consulting firms offer a variety of services similar to those of management consultants, but the former primarily offer technical expertise or advise clients on nonmanagement issues. For example, an economic consultant might be hired to help a business project future product sales, or a traffic consultant might be retained to advise a city government on how much a proposed new tunnel would alleviate traffic congestion. This group of businesses includes sociological research firms, architectural consultants, educational consulting firms, city planners, and many others. In fact, there are highly specialized consultants with expertise in almost every business and government-related activity.

Public relations firms help secure favorable public exposure for their clients, advise them in the case of a sudden public crisis, and design strategies to help them attain a certain public image. Toward these ends, public relations firms analyze public or internal sentiment about clients; establish relationships with the media; write speeches and coach clients for interviews; issue press releases; and organize client-sponsored publicity events, such as contests, concerts, exhibits, symposia, and sporting and charity events. Clients of public relations firms include all types of businesses, institutions, trades, and public interest groups, and even some high-profile individuals.

Lobbying firms, a special type of public relations firm, differ somewhat. Instead of attempting to secure favorable public opinion about their clients, they attempt to influence legislators in favor of their clients’ special interests. Lobbyists often work for large businesses, industry trade organizations, unions, or public interest groups.

Management services and facility support services firms are similar to each other, but differ in one important respect. Management services firms administer other firms’ properties, businesses, or projects and provide management personnel but not operating staff. In contrast, facility support services firms provide both management and staff. For example, a common type of management service is construction management. A corporation, real estate developer, or group of investors might hire a construction management firm to oversee a construction project to ensure that it is completed within certain time and cost constraints. The construction management firm prepares estimates of building costs and a project schedule; coordinates the work of designers, contractors, workers, and suppliers; and inspects the work as it progresses, to ensure that it conforms to plans, budget, quality standards, and the completion schedule. However, the construction management firm employs none of the construction workers, designers, or contractors; it only coordinates and administers the process.

Facility management firms, on the other hand, might administer and staff various services at airports, military installations, universities, hospitals, or corporate headquarters. Unlike management services firms, facility management firms employ many of the workers necessary to run these facilities—managers, guards, maintenance and custodial staff, groundskeepers, and other workers. Facility management firms do not provide all of the staffing, particularly management. Many times, there is an in-house facility manager that oversees the department but may choose to outsource trades and custodial workers through a facility management firm.

The vast majority of firms in the management and public relations services industry are small, primarily because new firms, particularly those engaged in consulting and public relations, can easily enter the industry. Licensing, certification, and large capital outlays seldom are necessary to become a management or business consultant, public relations specialist, or construction manager; and the work can be quite lucrative for those with the right education, experience, and contacts. As a result, many wage and salary workers in management and public relations services eventually leave established firms to go into business for themselves. In addition, after developing specialized expertise, people working in other industries often start their own consulting businesses, and some experienced workers perform consulting work after retiring.

Most firms encourage employees to attend employer-paid time-management classes. This helps reduce the stress sometimes associated with working under strict time constraints. Also, with today’s hectic lifestyle, many firms in this industry offer or provide health facilities or clubs for employees to maintain good health.

Not all employees in this industry work under identical conditions. In 2000, workers in the industry averaged 35.9 hours per week, a little above the national average. However, some must work long hours in stressful environments, as often is the case with lobbyists, consultants, construction managers, and public relations writers, who frequently must meet hurried deadlines. Workers whose services are billed hourly—such as many business and management consultants and public relations specialists—are often under pressure to manage their time very carefully. Occasionally, weekend work also is necessary, depending upon the job that is being performed. In addition, the increasing globalization of the marketplace compels many executives and consultants to travel extensively or live away from home for extended periods.

The vast majority of establishments in this industry were fairly small, employing fewer than 5 workers (see chart). Self-employed individuals operated many of these small firms. Despite the prevalence of small firms and self-employed workers, large firms tend to dominate the industry. Nearly 60 percent of jobs are found in only about 3 percent of the establishments, and some of the largest firms in the industry employ several thousand people.

Although employees in this industry work in all parts of the country, many workers are concentrated near large urban centers.

Compared with other industries, a relatively high proportion of workers are highly educated. Around 40 percent of those in management and public relations services have a bachelor’s degree, compared with 18.5 of the workers throughout the entire economy. More than 25 percent have a master’s degree or higher, compared with 9 percent of the workers throughout the economy. Certain jobs may have stringent entry requirements. For example, some management consulting firms prefer to hire only workers who have a master’s degree in business administration (MBA). Other positions can be attained only after many years of related experience.

In management and public relations services, workers in management and business and financial operations occupations and in office and administrative support occupations make up 56 percent of employment. These same occupations account for about 27 percent of workers across the entire economy. These workers comprise a disproportionate share of jobs in this industry because they not only manage and administer their own firms, but often manage clients’ businesses or properties as well. For example, office management services and facilities support firms might need only a handful of managers, bookkeepers, and secretaries to handle their own affairs, but need many more to administer each office or facility they contract to manage.

Top executives, the largest managerial occupation in the industry, includes both the highest level managers—such as chief executive officers and vice presidents—and many middle managers with diverse duties. Top-level managers shape company policy, often with the help of other executives or a board of directors. They oversee all activities of the firm, coordinate duties of subordinate executives and managers, and often bear ultimate responsibility for a firm’s performance. i Mid-level managers may oversee the activities of one department or, when working for a management services firm, all the activities of one or more establishments, properties, or construction ventures. These jobs are found throughout the industry, but they are particularly concentrated in the management services and facility support services segments.

Management analysts, also called management consultants, are the highest profile employees in the management consulting industry. Their work is quite varied, depending on the nature of the project and the client’s needs. In general, consultants study and analyze business-related problems, synthesizing information from many sources, and recommend solutions. Suggested solutions can range from overhauling a client’s computer systems to offering early retirement incentives to middle managers, switching health plans, improving just-in-time inventory systems, hiring public relations firms, or selling troublesome parts of businesses. Because of the varied nature of these jobs, firms hire workers with diverse backgrounds, such as engineering, finance, actuarial science, chemistry, and business. Many firms require consultants to have MBA’s, whereas others hire workers who have only bachelor’s degrees. Many workers have experience in other industries prior to entering management consulting work.

Construction managers work almost exclusively for construction management firms in the industry. In construction industries, the term “construction manager” sometimes is used to refer to the jobs of constructor, construction superintendent, general construction manager, project supervisor, and any number of contractors. In the management services segment of this industry, construction managers are highly trained or experienced workers who control the entire construction process. Through precise scheduling and cost estimation techniques, these managers oversee projects to ensure that they are completed on time and at a reasonable cost. Their work requires a thorough understanding of the construction process. As a result, most construction managers have an extensive educational background—in subjects such as architecture, engineering, construction technology, law, and business administration—as well as many years of related construction experience before entering this occupation.

Other management and business and financial operations occupations include financial managers, who prepare financial statements and assess the financial health of firms. Often, they must have at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting or finance. As one might expect, most advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers in the industry are employed in public relations firms, where they manage publicity campaigns and supervise public relations specialists, discussed below. Administrative services managers typically administer a firm’s support services, overseeing secretaries, data entry keyers, bookkeepers, and other clerical staff. In the management services industry, they also often supervise a client’s clerical and support staff. Accountants and auditors monitor firms’ financial transactions and often report to financial managers.

Administrative support positions in management and public relations services resemble those in other industries. Management and facility support services firms often staff clients’ businesses, so administrative support workers are needed in large numbers. Particularly numerous are secretaries and administrative assistants and bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks, who record and classify financial data. The industry also employs many supervisors and managers of office and administrative support workers, who oversee the support staff, often reporting to administrative services managers.

One of the industry’s largest professional occupations is public relations specialists, almost all of whom work in the public relations segment of the industry. Under the guidance of public relations managers, these workers design, implement, and analyze public relations strategies and materials. They write press releases, contact people in the media, encourage their clients to sponsor special events, prepare clients for interviews or crises, and advise them on how to achieve a desired public image. In almost all cases, workers in these jobs must have strong writing skills and a bachelor’s degree; applicants with degrees in communications, journalism, English, or business and prior job experience are preferred.

Designers in this industry are mostly graphic designers who use a variety of print, electronic, and film media to create designs that meet clients' commercial needs. Using computer software, they develop the overall layout and design of magazines, newspapers, journals, corporate reports, and other publications. They also may produce promotional displays and marketing brochures for products and services and design distinctive company logos for products and businesses. An increasing number of graphic designers develop material to appear on Internet home pages.

The rapid spread of computers and information technology has generated a need for highly trained computer specialists to design and develop new hardware and software systems and to incorporate new technologies. Systems analysts design new computer systems or redesign old systems for new applications. They solve computer problems and enable computer technology to meet individual needs of an organization. For example, a systems analyst from a management consulting firm might be hired by a wholesale firm to implement an online inventory database. Computer software engineers, on the other hand, can be involved in the design and development of software systems for control and automation of manufacturing, business, and management processes. Other computer specialists include computer support specialists who provide technical assistance, support, and advice to customers and users, and database administrators who work with database management systems software and determine ways to organize and store data. In the consulting segments of this industry, computer specialists such as systems analysts, computer scientists, and computer engineers sometimes are referred to simply as “consultants.”

Technical workers also include computer programmers, who write programs and create software—often in close conjunction with systems analysts—and engineering technicians, who aid engineers in research and development. Like systems analysts and engineers, persons in these occupations work primarily in the business and management consulting segments of the industry.

Compared with the primary occupational groups discussed above, the industry has relatively few jobs in service occupations. These include a large number of food preparation and serving related workers, who prepare and serve meals in business or institutional cafeterias. These occupations are found throughout the industry, but many food preparation and serving workers are employed in facilities support services firms.

Management and public relations service firms do not produce any goods and, as a result, employ relatively few sales and production workers. Sales, production, and the remaining occupational groups make up only about 15 percent of industry employment.

The management and public relations services industry offers excellent opportunities for self-employment. Because capital requirements are low, highly experienced workers can start their own businesses fairly easily and cheaply; and, every year, thousands of workers in this industry go into business for themselves. Some of these workers come from established management and public relations services firms, whereas others leave industry, government, or academic jobs to start their own businesses.

Most organizations need prospective employees to possess a variety of skills. To a large extent, a degree is only one desired qualification. Workers must also possess proven analytical and problem-solving ability, excellent written and verbal communications skills, experience in a particular specialty, assertiveness and motivation, strong attention to detail, and a willingness to work long hours, if necessary.

Whereas very few universities or colleges offer formal programs of study in management consulting, many fields provide a suitable background. These include most areas of business and management, as well as computer and information sciences and engineering. Management consulting firms also provide extensive training on the job. The method and extent of training can vary, based on the type of consulting and the nature of the firm. Information systems, industrial production, and other highly technical consulting requires particularly extensive formal training, but training for other types of consulting work often is less rigorous.

Management and leadership classes and seminars are available throughout the United States; some are hosted by volunteer senior executives and management experts, representing a variety of businesses and industries. Some large firms invest a great deal of time and money in training programs, educating new hires in formal classroom settings over several weeks or even months, and some even have separate training facilities. Small firms often combine formal and on-the-job training.

Entry-level positions within the management and public relations industry involve very little responsibility at the beginning. Striving for and displaying quality work results in more responsibility. Most management consulting firms have two entry-level positions. Workers who hold bachelor’s degrees usually start as research associates; those with graduate degrees usually begin work as consultants. Successful workers progress through the ranks from research associate to consultant, management consultant, senior consultant, junior partner, and after many years, to senior partner. In some firms, however, it is very difficult for research associates to progress to the next level without further education. As a result, many management consulting firms offer tuition assistantships, grants, or reimbursement plans so that workers can attain a master’s in business administration or another degree.

In business consulting firms, workers usually have extensive formal education, such as a master’s or doctoral degree, in a relevant field. Additionally, few start in business consulting firms without some prior experience. Often, they have worked as university or college professors or as researchers in government or private industry. New entrants normally begin as research assistants and work under experienced consultants, until they are able to carry out projects independently.

In public relations, employers prefer applicants with degrees in communications, journalism, English, or business. Some 4-year colleges and universities have begun to offer a concentration in public relations. Because there is keen competition for entry-level public relations jobs, workers are encouraged to gain experience through internships, co-op programs, or one of the formal public relations programs offered across the country. However, these programs are not available everywhere, so most public relations workers get the bulk of their training on the job. At some firms, this training consists of formal classroom education, but in most cases, workers train under the guidance of senior account executives or other experienced workers, gradually familiarizing themselves with public relations work. Entry-level workers often start as research or account assistants and may be promoted to account executive, account supervisor, vice president, and executive vice president.

Voluntary accreditation programs for public relations specialists and management consultants, respectively, are offered by the Public Relations Society of America and the Institute of Management Consultants. Both programs are recognized marks of competency in the profession and require that workers have been employed in the field for several years.

Almost all workers in management services receive on-the-job training, and the remainder usually have prior work experience in a related field. Most managerial and supervisory workers gain experience informally, overseeing a few workers or part of a project under the close supervision of a senior manager. Although it is less common, some large firms offer formal management training.

Workers who advance to high-level managerial or supervisory jobs in management services firms usually have an extensive educational background. For example, a worker with an electrical engineering degree might start work in a construction management firm as a field inspector and advance quickly. On the other hand, a worker without such a degree, but with many years of construction experience, might also hold the position of field inspector. However, the latter employee will be at a disadvantage for further advancement. Frequently, the highly technical nature of work in these firms makes it difficult for less educated workers to advance.

According to a 2001 survey conducted by Abbot, Langer and Associates, the median annual cash compensation for junior consultants was $40,210; consultants, $53,207; senior consultants, $74,195; principal consultants, $93,690; and senior or executive vice presidents (ownership interest), $160,000.

In addition to a straight salary, many workers receive additional compensation, such as profit-sharing, stock ownership, or performance-based bonuses. In some firms, bonuses can constitute one-third of annual pay.

Only 2.1 percent of workers in management and public relations services belong to unions or are covered by union contracts, compared with 14.9 percent of workers in all industries combined.

Accompanying this changing business environment will be new competitive pressures that also will help spur industry growth. Firms today must produce higher quality goods and services more cheaply, or else lose business to more efficient domestic or foreign competitors. To cut costs, firms increasingly turn to “outsourcing,” which means eliminating some in-house staff—such as internal public relations specialists or office managers—and contracting with outside firms to handle these functions. Often, these outside firms are more expensive than in-house workers in the short run, but are advantageous because they can easily be dismissed, once they are no longer needed. As businesses seek to cut costs over the long term, outsourcing in areas such as information systems, strategy, public relations, and human resources planning should continue to boost employment in the management and public relations services industry.

Each segment of the industry will grow at a different rate, for a variety of reasons. The management consulting segment will continue to grow rapidly, as demand for management consulting services increase. Contributing to this growth is a rise in the demand for information technology and the expansion of e-commerce. Most organizations today have little e-business experience and rely heavily on consultants to develop e-business strategies and integrate technologies. But in this maturing market, mergers, acquisitions, and downsizing will become more common, as firms compete by attempting to offer a broader range of consulting services. The resulting consolidation will temper employment growth.

The public relations segment also should experience faster growth, due to the growing importance of business media and the corresponding role of public relations. However, employment growth in the management services and facility support services sectors is being adversely affected by competition from other establishments providing one specialized service, such as janitorial or guard services.

For a brochure on careers in public relations, contact:

For further information on career opportunities in Construction management, write to:

Additional information about careers in facility management is available from:

In addition, information on the following occupations found in the management and public relations services industry appears in the 2002-03 Occupational Outlook Handbook:

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